The deposition of materials such as clay, organic matter, or salts that have been leached from upper soil horizons into lower ones.
The conversion of nutrients from soluble or plant-available forms into forms temporarily unavailable, often by microbial uptake.
A soil or rock horizon through which water cannot pass easily, restricting drainage and root penetration.
A plant or animal whose presence or abundance reflects specific environmental conditions or soil health.
The process by which water enters soil from the surface, influenced by soil texture, structure, and cover.
The speed at which water penetrates the soil surface, often measured during rainfall or irrigation.
Commercially manufactured nutrient sources containing minerals in readily available forms for plants.
Soil material composed mainly of mineral particles such as sand, silt, and clay, with little organic matter.
An ecological approach to pest control that combines biological, cultural, and chemical methods to minimize risks and maximize effectiveness.
The practice of growing two or more crops together in the same field, often to maximize land use, improve soil fertility, or reduce pests.
