The natural environment where a species lives and interacts, including its soil, vegetation, and climate conditions.
A dense, compacted soil layer that restricts root growth and water movement, often formed by clay, organic matter, or iron compounds.
The ratio of economic yield (such as grain) to total aboveground biomass produced by a crop.
Materials that pose risks to human health or the environment due to their toxic, flammable, or corrosive properties.
Metal elements such as lead, cadmium, and mercury that can accumulate in soils and organisms, often causing toxicity.
A chemical substance used to control or eliminate unwanted plants (weeds).
Animals that feed primarily on plants, contributing to energy transfer in ecosystems.
Farming systems that rely on significant external inputs such as synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, and mechanization to maximize yields.
A distinct soil layer that differs in color, structure, or composition from those above or below it.
The sequence of soil layers observed from the surface downward, typically including O, A, E, B, C, and R horizons.
